Assessing teachers' intervention-related expectations and self-efficacy: An examination of the factor structure of the implementation beliefs assessment.

Individual-level determinants are hypothesized to enable or prevent successful implementation of evidence-based practices, yet there are limited options for measuring theory-informed, individual-level determinants that influence teachers' and other implementers' delivery of school-based interventions. The goal of this study was to develop a self-report scale that measures variables that have been associated with initial and sustained behavior change related to school-based intervention implementation according to the health action process approach (HAPA). Participants were a nationally representative sample of kindergarten through Grade 12 public school teachers, stratified by grade level and geographical region. Item generation was based on a systematic review of the literature on outcome expectations and self-efficacy, the core constructs related to initiating and sustaining behavior change from the HAPA and in consultation with the theory developer. The sample was randomly split; half of the sample was used for exploratory factor analysis (EFA), and the other half was used for confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). The EFA resulted in a final factor structure of three dimensions of the Implementation Beliefs Assessment (IBA): (a) implementation self-efficacy, (b) positive outcome expectations, and (c) negative outcome expectations. This structure was supported in the other half of the sample using CFA. Additional analyses supported the reliability of IBA data. The IBA represents a step forward toward psychometrically sound measurement of factors associated with initial and sustained behavior change. Implications for future research are discussed. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Impact of work schedule characteristics on teacher mental health and burnout symptoms while remote working.

BACKGROUND: During the COVID-19 pandemic, teachers quickly shifted to remote teaching with many teachers experiencing increased work demands with limited resources, affecting both mental health and work. METHODS: Within a cross-sectional study, we evaluated the relationship between one type of work demand, non-standard work schedule characteristics, and depressive and burnout symptoms in kindergarten through 8th grade U.S. teachers working remotely in May 2020. We further assessed the impact of COVID-19 and work resources. Work schedule characteristics were self-assessed across six domains on a 5-point frequency scale from always (1) to never (5). We used multilevel Poisson models to calculate prevalence ratios (PRs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs). RESULTS: In fully adjusted models, frequently working unexpectedly was associated with a higher prevalence of depressive symptoms (PR = 1.18, 95% CI = 1.07-1.31, p < 0.01), high emotional exhaustion (PR = 1.17, 95% CI = 1.05-1.30, p < 0.01), and high depersonalization (PR = 1.40, 95% CI = 1.02-1.92, p = 0.03). Remote work resources were significantly associated with a lower prevalence of depressive symptoms (PR = 0.88, 95% CI = 0.79-0.98, p = 0.02). There was a linear association between low coworker support and a low sense of personal accomplishment (PR = 0.68, 95% CI = 0.53-0.87, p < 0.01). CONCLUSIONS: Frequently having to work unexpectedly while remote teaching was associated with symptoms of depression and burnout during the COVID-19 pandemic. Workplaces should support predictable working times to lessen the disruption caused by unexpected work to promote worker well-being.

Considering the implementation research-to-practice gap: An experimental evaluation of intervention-general methods for assessing and supporting intervention fidelity through coaching.

Implementation support through coaching-such as with embedded fidelity assessment, performance feedback, modeling, and alliance building-has been empirically supported as a way to increase and sustain interventionists' fidelity levels. However, education research consistently shows that practitioners struggle to monitor and improve interventionists' fidelity using implementation support strategies. One explanation for this type of implementation research-to-practice gap is that evidence-based coaching strategies have significant limitations with respect to their usability, feasibility, and adaptability. This study is the first to experimentally evaluate an evidence-based set of adaptable materials and procedures designed to assess and support the intervention fidelity of school-based interventions. Using a randomized multiple-baseline-across-participants design, we examined the extent to which these materials and procedures would influence intervention adherence and quality of an evidence-based reading intervention. Across all nine interventionist participants, data revealed that the implementation strategies meaningfully improved intervention adherence and quality, and high levels of intervention fidelity maintained 1 month after removing the support procedures. Findings are discussed with respect to how these materials and procedures address a critical need within school-based research and practice as well as how they may help to inform and address the implementation research-to-practice gap in education.

Scale-out of a Total Worker Health® approach for designing interventions to reduce teacher stress: pilot implementation evaluation.

BACKGROUND: Teachers have high rates of daily stress and the majority of available interventions are focused at the teacher-level. Yet, best practices in Total Worker Health® approaches indicate organization-level interventions identified using a participatory approach are most effective. We conducted an exploratory scale-out pilot study to examine the adoption of the Healthy Workplace Participatory Program (HWPP), an evidence-based, Total Worker Health approach to engage employees (e.g., teachers) and supervisory personnel (e.g., administrators) in the design and implementation of workplace well-being interventions within two elementary schools. METHODS: We evaluated the program both quantitatively and qualitatively collecting implementation outcome data (i.e., fidelity, acceptability, understanding, feasibility, system alignment) as well as data-driven adaptations using the Framework for Reporting Adaptations and Modifications-Expanded. Data from the first school informed scale-out adaptation of the HWPP intervention, HWPP-Education, within the second school. We compared implementation outcomes between Pilot Schools 1 and 2 to evaluate improvements in the adapted HWPP. RESULTS: Adaptations to HWPP program content and process were suggested to increase feasibility and contextual fit. Acceptability, understanding, and feasibility ratings showed statistically significant improvements comparing School 1 to School 2 which implemented the improved HWPP-Education. Furthermore, users reported adaptations including shorter meeting design and faster process were feasible within their work context. CONCLUSION: This pilot study is the first attempt to scale out the HWPP to educators, and while not intended to confirm efficacy, it showed promising results for scale-out. Results from Pilot Schools 1 and 2 suggest systematic use of quantitative and qualitative implementation data can effectively inform scale-out efforts that increase critical outcomes such as fidelity, acceptability, understanding, feasibility, system alignment, and leader engagement as well as decrease the extent of system resources needed. As such, this scale-out process may be a feasible approach on which to base large-scale implementation efforts of the HWPP among educators.

Using the Performance Diagnostic Checklist to evaluate and promote paraeducators' treatment fidelity.

Paraeducators, who increasingly serve as implementers for students in special education, can struggle with intervention fidelity. Special educators, often responsible for providing paraeducators with support, receive limited supervision training. From organizational behavior management, the Performance Diagnostic Checklist-Human Services (PDC-HS) is a checklist to detect reasons for poor workplace performance and identify aligned support. Utilizing a multiple baseline design, this study evaluated the impact of PDC-HS indicated implementation support on the intervention fidelity of five paraeducators implementing six behavior intervention plans for students receiving special education services. The PDC-HS indicated that all paraeducators would benefit from behavior skills training and visuals of the plans, in addition to other specific supports for individual paraeducators (e.g., prompts, feedback). These implementation supports were effective in improving intervention fidelity for four paraeducators, whereas one paraeducator (across two students) did not respond to these supports. Changes in student outcomes (i.e., academic engagement, disruptive behavior) were inconsistent, suggesting that the behavior intervention plans may have needed to be revised. Usability data suggested that the PDC-HS and indicated supports were generally acceptable, but revisions may be warranted. The implications of this study for school-based implementation support research are discussed.

Increasing implementation science literacy to address the research-to-practice gap in school psychology.

Many evidence-based practices have not achieved their potential to broadly impact student outcomes as schools struggle with their adoption and implementation. This costly and consequential implementation gap must be addressed within school psychology through the focused study of implementation processes and outcomes. Implementation science is a multidisciplinary, translational field focused on increasing the usage and implementation of evidence-based practices into typical practice to improve outcomes. Despite the rapid development of the field of implementation science over the past decade it has been underexamined in school psychology research. As a step toward decreasing the implementation gap, the purpose of this introductory article is to increase school psychology researchers' implementation literacy. Specifically, this article provides an overview of implementation science, including (a) key terminology; (b) theories, models, and frameworks designed to explain, describe, or illustrate implementation processes or constructs; (c) strategies to support implementation across levels (e.g., provider, organization); (d) measures to capture implementation and related context; and (e) utilized research designs. By increasing school psychology researchers' implementation literacy, it is hoped that future research will attend to and evaluate implementation process and outcomes and thus facilitate the adoption and implementation of evidence-based practices to improve student outcomes.

Evaluating implementation supports delivered within problem-solving consultation.

Teachers participating in problem-solving consultation often struggle to maintain adequate treatment fidelity, which is necessary to improve student outcomes. Low levels of treatment fidelity may result from implementation barriers, such as intervention compatibility, implementer skill, and implementer motivation. This study involves the evaluation of five implementation supports designed to address implementation barriers (i.e., Implementation Planning, Role Play, Participant Modeling, Raising Awareness, Motivational Consulting) within problem-solving consultation. Across 14 randomized individual single-case AB intervention designs, we evaluated the impact of these implementation supports on teacher treatment fidelity of classroom management plans and class-wide academic engagement and disruptive behavior. Visual analysis, descriptive statistics, and randomization test analyses suggest that these implementation supports have the potential to be broadly effective in improving teachers' fidelity and student outcomes. Teachers required a different number of supports to increase fidelity levels and rated the implementation supports positively. Implications of the study's findings are described.

An exploratory investigation of teachers' intervention planning and perceived implementation barriers.

Increasingly teachers are the primary implementer responsible for providing evidence-based interventions to students. However, there is little knowledge regarding the extent to which teachers plan for intervention implementation, receive implementation support, or identify and address implementation barriers. This study explores survey data from over 1200 preschool through grade 12 teachers from 46 public school districts in a Northeastern state. Results indicate that teachers spend significant time engaging in intervention-related behavior and may be a primary source responsible for selecting student interventions. However, the current extent to which they plan for implementation and present levels of implementation support are inadequate to produce high levels of sustained intervention implementation. In addition, almost 60% of implementation barriers reported related to aspects of the intervention itself. Findings from this study provide guidance for future research and preliminary recommendations for ameliorating implementation barriers and proactively supporting treatment integrity in schools.

Increasing teacher treatment integrity of behavior support plans through consultation and implementation planning.

School psychologists commonly provide intervention services to children through consultation with teachers. Data suggest, however, that many teacher consultees struggle to implement these interventions. There are relatively few evidence-based strategies for promoting teacher consultees' intervention implementation. The purpose of this study was to evaluate Implementation Planning as a strategy for increasing the adherence and quality with which teacher consultees implemented behavior support plans. Implementation Planning involves adapting intervention steps to the implementation context, providing detailed logistical planning, as well as identifying implementation barriers and developing strategies to address them. Results indicated that teachers' implementation adherence levels increased and quality levels increased with corresponding decreases in variability, compared to standard behavioral consultation. Implications for future research on treatment integrity are discussed.

Implementation science and school psychology.

The APA Division 16 Working Group on Translating Science to Practice contends that implementation science is essential to the process of translating evidence-based interventions (EBIs) into the unique context of the schools, and that increasing attention to implementation will lead to the improvement of school psychological services and school learning environments. Key elements of implementation and implementation science are described. Four critical issues for implementation science in school psychology are presented: barriers to implementation, improving intervention fidelity and identifying core intervention components, implementation with diverse client populations, and implementation in diverse settings. What is known and what researchers need to investigate for each set of issues is addressed. A discussion of implementation science methods and measures is included. Finally, implications for research, training and practice are presented.

Applying adult behavior change theory to support mediator-based intervention implementation.

A majority of evidence-based interventions in schools are delivered through consultation models and are implemented by a mediator, such as a teacher. Research indicates that mediators do not always adequately implement adopted evidence-based interventions, limiting their effectiveness in transforming student outcomes. We propose that to transform student outcomes through evidence-based practice, conceptualization of mediators' intervention implementation must move beyond quantification of discrete intervention steps implemented. Intervention implementation requires behavior change and thus can be conceptualized as an adult behavior change process. The purpose of this article is to illustrate how adult behavior change theory may inform how intervention implementation is conceptualized, facilitated, and supported. An empirically supported theory of adult behavior change from health psychology, the Health Action Process Approach, and how it has informed development of PRIME (Planning Realistic Intervention Implementation and Maintenance by Educators), a system of supports to facilitate mediators' implementation of school-based interventions, are introduced. A case study demonstrating the application of PRIME with a public school teacher implementing a behavior support plan is presented. Implications for future research are discussed.

Effects of verbal and graphic performance feedback on behavior support plan implementation in a public elementary school.

Previous research suggests that performance feedback improves treatment integrity. This study compared the effects of verbal performance feedback and verbal plus graphic performance feedback on implementation of a student-specific behavior support plan (BSP) by members of a second-grade teaching team at a public elementary school. A consultant to the school delivered feedback following regularly scheduled classroom observations. Results indicated that combining verbal and graphic performance feedback was more effective than verbal performance feedback alone in improving treatment integrity. Informal data collected on student performance also suggested that appropriate behavior increased with better implementation of the BSP. Clinical and research issues are discussed.